The Makah Whaling Conflict:
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Makah Whaling Conflict
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[1] For a complete anthropological bibliography on Makah historical culture, the reader is referred to A.Renker and E.Gunther, “Makah,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithsonian (1990), and to the literature cited on the related Nuu-chah-nulth peoples to the north, in E.Arima and J.Dewhirst, “Nootkans of Vancouver Island,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithsonian (1990).

The Territorial Governor of Washington, Isaac Stevens, told the Makah that “[the Great Father] knows what whalers you are, how you go far [out] to sea, to take whales. He will send you barrels in which to put your oil, kettles to fry it out, lines and implements to fish with.” quoted in C.Collins, “Subsistence and Survival: The Makah Indian Reservation, 1855-1933.” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 87(4):181 (1996); see also B.S.Lane, “Background of Treaty Making in Western Washington,” American Indian Journal 3(4):2–11 (1977).

The most important commercial hunt for the Makah was seal rather than whale, starting in the 1860s. At first hunting in canoes with harpoons, they eventually joined non-native crews and by the 1880s, possessed as many as five schooners. They were so successful at this hunt that whaling was abandoned for a time, but the seals became scarce and Makah fishermen had to struggle to hold on to their boats. See A.Renker and E.Gunther, “Makah,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithsonian (1990), p. 428; A.J.Gillis, “History of the Neah Bay Agency,” Coast Salish and Western Washington Indians III. New York: Garland Publishing (1974), p. 110.

H.C.Taylor, “Anthropological Investigations of the Makah Indians Relative to Tribal Identity and Aboriginal Possession of Lands,” Coast Salish and Western Washington Indians II. New York: Garland Publishers (1974), p. 67. “The Treaty of Neah Bay, 1855.” C.J.Kappler, Indian Treaties, 1778-1883. New York: Interland Publishing (1972), pp. 682–685.

[2] D.L.Boxberger, To Fish in Common. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press (1989); C.Collins, “Subsistence and Survival: The Makah Indian Reservation, 1855-1933.” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 87(4), 1996; C.Lien, Olympic Battleground. San Francisco: Sierra Books (1991); F.G.Cohen, Treaties on Trial. Seattle: University of Washington Press (1986); A.J.Gillis, “History of the Neah Bay Agency,” Coast Salish and Western Washington Indians III. New York: Garland Publishing (1974), p. 113; Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission. Last access 3/15/99. <http://www.nwifc.wa.gov>; A.Renker and E.Gunther, “Makah,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithshonian (1990), p. 428; C.H.Williams and W.Neubrech, Indian Treaties—American Nightmare. Seattle: Outdoor Empire Publishing (1976).

[3] L.V.Mapes, “Protocol Delays Start of Makah Whale Hunt.” Seattle Times 10/2/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/whal_100298.html>; A.Renker and E.Gunther, “Makah,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithshonian (1990), p. 429.

[4] J.Aradanas, “Aboriginal Whaling—Biological Diversity Meets Cultural Diversity.” Northwest Science Forum 72(2):142 (1998); M.Barber, “Gray Whale Count of 26,600 Gives the Green Light to Makah Hunting.” Seattle Post-Intelligencer 3/17/99. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://www.seattle-pi.com/national/whal17.shtml>; M.Barber, “Pacific Gray Whales Have Made Strong Comeback.” Seattle Post-Intelligencer 3/18/99. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://www.seattle-pi.com/local/whal18.shtml>; D.Sorenson, “Domestic and International Regulation of ‘Subsistence’ Whaling.” Ms. in author’s possession (1995); A.Tizon, “The Whale Hunt: Makahs Endeavor to Revive Ancestral Culture,” Seattle Times 9/20/98. Last Access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/maka_092098.html>

[5] According to the IWC’s 1998 Schedule in section 13(b)(2), gray whales may be taken “only when the meat and products of such whales are to be used exclusively for local consumption by the aborigines whose traditional aboriginal subsistence and cultural needs have been recognised.” Since the IWC did not add the Makah to the schedule, whaling opponents have argued that this does not include the Makah. On the other hand, I have been told secondhand that this section initially read “whose traditional aboriginal subsistence and cultural needs have been recognized by the IWC” (emphasis added), but that this phrase was then removed by the Commission members, supporting the interpretation that the recognition need not come from the IWC. Later in this paper I note further evidence that the Makah hunt has been accepted by the IWC.

In 1996, animal rights groups also paid for an advertisement opposing the hunt in a regional newspaper published near Neah Bay. Seven Makah elders signed the ad.

House Committee on Resources Resolution, 6/26/96; Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Sea Shepherd Stalls Return to Commercial Whaling in the United States.” Last access: 11/6/98 <http://www.seashepherd.org/wh/us/mk96.html>; D.Westneat, “Anti-Whaling Crusade Heats Up.” Seattle Times 10/10/97. Last access: 3/16/99. <http://archives.seattletimes.com/cgi-bin/texis/web/vortext/display?storyID=38223>

[6] A.Tizon, “The Whale Hunt: Makahs Endeavor to Revive Ancestral Culture,” Seattle Times 9/20/98. Last Access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/maka_092098.html>; L.Mapes, “Feds Have a Whale of a Conflict,” Seattle Times 10/15/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/hunt_101598.html>

[7] Ann Renker, an anthropologist who lives at Neah Bay, has noted that the Makah, like the Ahousaht to the north, still teach the necessary whaling preparatory rituals to their sons. A.Renker, “Whale Hunting and the Makah Tribe: A Needs Statement.” In Environmental Assessment of the Makah Tribe’s Harvest of up to Five Gray Whales per year for Aboriginal Subsistence Use. Appendix 8.2. National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources, Silver Spring, MD (1997).

D.Bowling, “Tribe Creates Furor over Whale Hunt.” MSNBC 10/21/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.msnbc.com/news/199713.asp>; A.Tizon, “The Whale Hunt: Makahs Endeavor to Revive Ancestral Culture,” Seattle Times 9/20/98. Last Access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/maka_092098.html>

[8] Feasting extends the institution of potlatching, which also continues (potlatch comes from the Chinook jargon word for “give”).

[9] The City of Westport (in June 1998) and the Washington State Legislature (in March 1998) have both passed resolutions against the hunt, in part citing concerns about the whale-watching economy. Metcalf also joined in a 1997 suit against the Commerce Department, alleging the hunt was in violation of several US laws (the lawsuit was dismissed in September 1998 and appealed in November).

The Makah pay federal income tax, state sales tax, etc. Compare this to another “welfare Indian” stereotype, when a local charter boat operator speculates that the Makah are “practicing in the bay with large guns to stir up a hornets nest. Hoping that some kind of subsidizing program would make up for their loss of income if their [sic] not allowed to hunt the whale, which I’m sure they would prefer.” R.Waddell, “Stirring Up a Hornet’s Nest.” Last access: 3/16/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/waddell.html> The status of treaty rights was clarified in United States v. Winans (1905).

P.Andersen, “Makah Whaling Plan Receives Go-Ahead from Federal Judge.” Seattle Times 9/22/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/maka_092298.html>; G.K.Hovelsrud-Broda, “Save the Seals and Damn the Natives: Faulty Notions of ‘Tradition’ in the Anti-Sealing Movement.” Active Voices: The On-line Journal of Cultural Survival. Last access: 2/20/99. <http://www.cs.org/cs%20website/LevelFour/LevelFour-Broda>; League of Conservation Voters, 1998 National Environmental Scorecard. Last access: 3/11/99. <http://scorecard.lcv.org/member.cfm?id=7743>; J.Metcalf, “Speech Opposing the Makah Whale Hunt Before the House, March 27, 1998.” Last access: 3/11/99. <http://www.house.gov/metcalf/spmakah.htm>; Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Sea Shepherd Stalls Return to Commercial Whaling in the United States.” Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seashepherd.org/wh/us/mk96.html>; C.Thompson, “Coalition Tries to Thwart Tribe’s Whaling Plan.” The Oregonian 10/20/97. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.oregonlive.com/todaysnews/1097/st10203.html>; A.Tizon, “Marine Activist Says: ‘My Job is to Rock the Boat.’” Seattle Times 11/1/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/paul_110198.html>; G.Wenzel, Animal Rights, Human Rights. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press (1991).

[10] P.Andersen, “Makah to Consider Compensation Offer.” Seattle Times 11/30/98. Last access: 11/17/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/maka_113098.html>; Associated Press, “Feuding Disrupts Makah Whaling.” The Register-Guard 11/17/99. Last access: 3/3/99. <http://www.registerguard.com/news/19981117/4c.cr.makahdelay.1117.html>; R.K.Eichstaedt, “‘Save the Whales’ v. ‘Save the Makah’: The Makah and the Struggle for Native Whaling.” Animal Law 4:147 (1998); L.V.Mapes, “Some Makah Oppose Whale Hunt.” Seattle Times 10/30/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/hunt_103098.html>; Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Makah Tribe Violating Rights of Tribal Elder.” Last access: 11/17/98. <http://www.seashepherd.org/wh/us/mkamint.html>; C.Thompson, “Coalition Tries to Thwart Tribe’s Whaling Plan.” The Oregonian 10/20/97. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.oregonlive.com/todaysnews/1097/st10203.html>; A.Tizon, “Despite Offers of Aid, Makahs Say Whale Hunt is Still On.” Seattle Times 12/1/98. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/hunt_120198.html>

[11] W.Andersen, “Tribal Whaling Poses New Threat.” Last access: 3/17/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/paws.html>

PAWS writes that “Though the tribe is divided over the whaling, pro-whalers are in control of the tribal government. Opposition to whaling includes tribal elders.” Of course, elders also support the hunt and excluding this fact plays into romantic dichotomies of “traditional” vs. “assimilated” Indians. Progressive Animal Welfare Society. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://paws.paws.org>

[12] J.Simon, “Buffer Zone Set for Whalers.” Seattle Times 7/23/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://archives.seattletimes.com/cgi-bin/texis/web/vortext/display?storyID=50250>; A.Tizon, “Anti-Whaling Fleet Intends to Interfere with Makahs.” Seattle Times 7/24/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/altwhal_072498.html>; L.V.Mapes, “Protocol Delays Start of Makah Whale Hunt.” Seattle Times 10/2/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/whal_100298.html>; P.Andersen, “Protesters Turned Away from Tribe Dock.” The Register-Guard 10/18/98. <http://www.registerguard.com/news/19981018/3d.cr.makah.1018.html>; C.Rayson and S.Breen, “Makah Indians in Washington State Defend Treaty Rights.” The Militant 62(44), 12/7/98. Last access: 3/12/99. <http://ww2.altavista.com/cgi-bin/news?msg@14849@soc%2eculture%2enative> (Posted to the soc.culture.native newsgroup, 12/2/98).

[13] C.Thompson, “Renewed Tradition Heads into the Unknown.” The Oregonian 10/1/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.oregonlive.com/todaysnews/9810/st100104.html>; L.V.Mapes, “Feds Have Whale of a Conflict.” Seattle Times 10/15/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/hunt_101598.html>; L.V.Mapes, “Protocol Delays Start of Makah Whale Hunt.” Seattle Times 10/2/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/whal_100298.html>; M.Baumgartner, “Makahs to Resume Whaling.” ABCNews.com 10/2/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.abcnews.com/sections/science/DailyNews/makah980930.html>

[14] P.Andersen, “Whaling Opponents Confront Makah.” The Register-Guard 11/1/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.registerguard.com/news/19981101/3c.cr.makahprotest.1101.html>; L.V.Mapes, “Standoff at Makah Border Gets Ugly.” Seattle Times 11/1/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/hunt_110198.html>; C.Rayson and S.Breen, “Makah Indians in Washington State Defend Treaty Rights.” The Militant 62(44), 12/7/98. Last access: 3/12/99. <http://ww2.altavista.com/cgi-bin/news?msg@14849@soc%2eculture%2enative> (Posted to the soc.culture.native newsgroup, 12/2/98).

[15] L.V.Mapes, “While Waiting to Whale, Makah Feel Some Heat.” Seattle Times 11/9/98. Last access: 11/9/98. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/hunt_110998.html>; P.Andersen, “Anti-Whaling Vessel Ships Out.” The Register-Guard 11/26/98. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://www.registerguard.com/news/19981126/9d.cr.makah.1126.html>; A.Tizon and J.Broom, “McCaw Trying to ‘Buy Off’ Whale Hunt?” Seattle Times 11/12/98. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://www.seattletimes.com/news/local/html98/maka_111298.html>

[16] Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Sea Shepherd Condemns Iceland Whaling Plan.” Press release, 3/18/99; Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Makah Whaling Opens the Door to Icelandic Whaling.” Press release 3/26/99.

Sea Shepherd blames the Icelandic decision to resume whaling on the Makah, arguing that “Iceland is no longer worried about U.S. pressure because the United States has compromised its own principles by allowing a whale hunt in the United States that has not been recognized by the International Whaling Commission.” They cite no evidence for this, other than the timing of the two events, and the U.S. will presumably enforce trade sanctions against Iceland regardless of the Makah hunt.

By March of 1999, Sea Shepherd was also devoting the front pages of their web site to two Neah Bay issues that were only tangentially related to whaling. The first is the harassment of Alberta Thompson for her stand against whaling (SSCS was attempting to get Amnesty International interested in her case). The second was a lawsuit filed against Tribal Police Officer Eric Svenson for his handling of arrests on November 1, 1998. See Sea Shephard Conservation Society Web Site. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://www.seashepherd.org>

[17] N.Einarsson, “All Animals are Equal but Some are Cetaceans: Conservation and Culture Conflict.” In Environmentalism: The View from Anthropology. Kay Milton, ed. Pp. 73-84. New York: Routledge (1993).

[18] However, the definition of a subsistence hunt has never been hard and fast. The St. Vincent and The Grenadines hunt is based on a whaling tradition only going back a hundred years, while it is reported that the Chukotki use the meat from their hunt as animal feed in a factory farm.

Since Canada is no longer a member of the IWC, and the Nuu-chah-nulth are currently negotiating a treaty with Canada that should include whaling provisions, it’s not clear how the Makah hunt will influence the Nuu-chah-nulth return to whaling. A federal spokesperson insists that Canada will not allow First Nations to hunt whales except for “food or social or ceremonial purposes” (Diane Lake, Federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans). Nuu-chah-nulth leaders have expressed anger at such assurances from Canada, since these issues are subject to negotiation in the current treaty talks. See A.Dark, Public Sphere Politics and Community Conflict over the Environment and Native Land Rights in Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. Ph.D. dissertation, New York University (1998).

[19] The 1997 IWC meeting resolution recorded that “A number of delegations expressed the view that the domestic obligations of the US Government were not to be considered by the IWC and should in no way affect the USA’s obligations under this and other international treaties.” Similarly, Lisa Distefano of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society has argued that the US does not have to honor its treaty with the Makah, because “In international law, the terms of a prior treaty remain in effect only insofar as they do not conflict with the terms of any subsequent treaty involving the parties to the prior agreement.” Why this should matter is not clear, since the Makah and the US were parties to the Treaty of Neah Bay and the US and other nations were parties to the ICRW. See L.Distefano, “Nature is More Important than Culture.” MSNBC 9/24/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.msnbc.com/news/196768.asp>

Sea Shepherd also argued that Article 13 of the Treaty of Neah Bay prohibits the Makah from selling whale meat to Japan (“The said tribe finally agrees not to trade at Vancouver’s Island or elsewhere out of the dominions of the United States…”). They seem to be suggesting that implementation of the treaty is contradictory, so it can be ignored. The Makah did give up their right to trade with foreign powers as a nation, but they gained the right to trade outside the country just as any other citizens when they gained US citizenship in 1924. The Makah may engage in any trade legal to US citizens (selling whale meat outside the country may not be legal).

Neither the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) or the Whaling Convention Act explicitly abrogate the Makah’s right. Indeed, the MMPA exempts Alaskan Natives from its provisions. It seems unlikely the MMPA intended to extinguish the rights of one tribe while granting those rights to another. In an extended discussion of all the federal environmental laws pertaining to whaling, Eichstaedt similarly found it unlikely that these laws could be used in court to prevent Makah whaling. R.K.Eichstaedt, “‘Save the Whales’ v. ‘Save the Makah’: The Makah and the Struggle for Native Whaling.” Animal Law 4:147 (1998); D.Sorenson, “Domestic and International Regulation of ‘Subsistence’ Whaling.” Ms. in author’s possession (1995).

W.C.Canby, American Indian Law in a Nutshell. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing (1988), pp. 84–88; J.Utter, American Indians. Lake Ann, MI: National Woodlands Publishing (1993), pp. 48–49; “News Media Lies.” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/17/99. http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/index.html>

[20] The Nuu-chah-nulth have an even stronger claim in rejecting the ICRW, although Canada is no longer a member of the IWC. When Canada signed the treaty, the Nuu-chah-nulth had never ceded any right to Canada via a treaty, and indeed, were not even voting citizens of Canada.

[21] D.Bowling, “Tribe Creates Furor over Whale Hunt.” MSNBC 10/21/98. Last access: 11/6/98. http://www.msnbc.com/news/199713.asp>; L.Distefano, “Nature is More Important than Culture.” MSNBC 9/24/98. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://www.msnbc.com/news/196768.asp>; Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Makah Gray Whale Hunt to be First Step in Commercial Enterprise.” Last access: 3/2/99. <http://www.seashepherd.org/wh/us/mkfoi95.html>; D.Westneat, “Lawsuit: U.S. Worked with Tribe, Ignored Laws in Allowing Whale Hunt.” Seattle Times 5/22/98. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://archives.seattletimes.com/cgi-bin/texis/web/vortex/display?storyID=20324>

[22] Sea Shepherd goes further in arguing that the Makah Tribal Council has deliberately misrepresented their actions in order to achieve a commercial hunt. They argue that the Makah pressed for the de-listing of the gray whale without announcing their commitment to whaling, and that they secured federal money to make marina improvements for fishing, tourism and whale-watching, only to announce days later that they intended to whale. Although this does not speak directly to the Makah’s right to whale, Sea Shepherd does hope to increase resistance to the hunt by defining it as a commercial hunt.

S.Cassidy, “On the Beach.” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/cassidy.html>

[23] J.Bowechup and J.Aradnas, “Nature, Culture and Makah Subsistence.” Paper presented at the American Ethnological Society Meetings, March 25, 1999. Portland, Oregon.

[24] A Makah person held up a sign to whaling protesters in 1998 that read “Go Home Eco-Colonialists.” This section takes its title from that slogan.

[25] P.Watson, “A Good Year for the Whales.” Sea Shepherd Conservation Society. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://www2.seashepherd.org/orgs/sscs/essays/orealm/orgoodyr.html>

[26] By SSCS’s own account, there was a discussion about selling gray whale meat between the Makah and Japan’s IWC delegate. This matches Ben Johnson’s account and does not suggest a working relationship between the two nations.

Similar to the Japanese manipulation argument, Cetacean Society International suggests that the Makah are being manipulated for reasons of national security, since Department of Defense facilities can be cited on the Makah Reservation without environmental impact assessments. W.Rossiter, “Makah Whaling: A Tangled Web.” Cetacean Society International Web Site. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://elfnet1a.elfi.com/csi99101.html>

D.Westneat and J.Simon, “Commercial Groups Aid Whale Hunt Plan.” Seattle Times 4/13/97. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://archives.seattletimes.com/cgi-bin/texis/web/vortex/display?storyID=38214>

[27] P.Zimmerman, “A Planned Whale Hunt?” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/zimmerman.html>

[28] J.Bray, “Makah Whale Hunt.” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/bray.html>

Similarly, PAWS writes:

…well-connected to the City of Port Angeles and boasting a new 7.8 million dollar marina, a world-class tribal museum, lighted tennis courts, schools, Federal Express and other amenities, the Makah of Neah Bay have ample access to the modern conveniences of life. [Progressive Animal Welfare Society Web Site. Last access: 11/6/98. <http://paws.paws.org>]

[29] Anthropologists can easily demonstrate that technological change indicates little about the content of other cultural changes. G.K.Hovelsrud-Broda, “Save the Seals and Damn the Natives: Faulty Notions of ‘Tradition’ in the Anti-Sealing Movement.” Active Voices: The On-line Journal of Cultural Survival. Last access: 2/20/99. <http://www.cs.org/cs%20website/LevelFour/LevelFour-Broda>; G.Wenzel, Animal Rights, Human Rights. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press (1991).

Some whaling protesters have wondered whether or not the Makah traditionally hunted the gray whale, or even if they found it edible. The Makah principally hunted the gray and humpback whales, less often killer whales, sperm whales and right whales. Traditionally, meat was stored by cutting it into strips and boiling it to separate the oil. The meat was smoked dry and the oil was stored. Later, dried fish and whale blubber could be dipped into the oil to soften and flavor it (George Gibbs wrote in 1877 that “dried halibut dipped in fresh sweet whale oil is not an objectionable repast to a hungry man”). From the archaeological recovery of gray whale bones at Ozette, it seems clear the Makah ate gray whale. See S.Taylor, “Gray Whale Meat?” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/taylor.html>; Gibbs quoted in H.C.Taylor, “Anthropological Investigations of the Makah Indians Relative to Tribal Identity and Aboriginal Possession of Lands,” Coast Salish and Western Washington Indians II. New York: Garland Publishers (1974), p. 50,53; W.Suttles, “Environment,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithshonian (1990), p. 26; E.Arima and J.Dewhirst, “Nootkans of Vancouver Island,” Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7. W.Suttles, ed. Washington, DC: Smithshonian (1990), p. 395.

[30] P.Zimmerman, “A Planned Whale Hunt?” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/zimmerman.html>; Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, “Sea Shepherd Stalls Return to Commercial Whaling in the United States.” Last access: 11/6/98 <http://www.seashepherd.org/wh/us/mk96.html>

[31] K.Johnson, “An Open Letter to the Public from the President of the Makah Whaling Commission.” 8/6/98. Last access: 3/12/9. <http://NCSEonline.org/nae/docs/makaheditorial.html>; L.Melwani, “Here Comes The Veggie Revolution.” Hinduism Today 12/95. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://www.spiritweb.org/HinduismToday/95-12-Veggie_Revolution.html>

The use of the word “evolution” seems to intend to suggest that historical and political change has the same kind of inevitability as biological evolution. Animal rights activists raise this spurious “evolutionism” frequently to justify the imposition of their views on indigenous peoples (see A.Dark, “Review of Animal Rights, Human Rights.” Last access: 3/17/99. <http://NCSEonline.org/nae/docs/dark1.html> Another example from the Makah whale hunt:

While I have great respect for cultural diversity and tradition, how far must we go to preserve things that are no longer acceptable? Would we also consider allowing peoples that had traditions of cannibalism, head hunting, slavery and scalping to practice these acts to preserve their cultures? [C. and J.Simpson. “The Gray…Today!” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/17/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/simpson.html>

For similar examples see S.Taylor, “Gray Whale Meat?” Whales on the Net. Last access: 3/18/99. <http://whales.magna.com.au/alert/makah/taylor.html>; In the Path of Giants, “Offer to the Makah.” Last access: 3/18/99. <http://www.graywhale.net/advocacy/offer.html>