Appendix A. Definitions and Assumptions

The terms used in this report are difficult to define and "bound" in practice. Therefore it is important to say a few words about definition and assumptions.

It is also important the state at the outset that, while every effort has been made to be comprehensive and accurate, readers should consider numbers and descriptions contained in this report to be approximate.

For the purposes of this report, we have striven to utilize the definitions of research and development used by the National Science Foundation in its reports of federal research and development. Thus:

"Research is systematic study directed toward fuller scientific knowledge or understanding of the subject studied. Research is classified as either basic or applied according to the objectives of the sponsoring agency.

In basic research the objective of the sponsoring agency is to gain more complete knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts, without specific applications toward processes or products in mind.

In applied research the objective of the sponsoring agency is to gain knowledge or understanding necessary for determining the means by which a recognized need may be met.

Development is systematic use of the knowledge or understanding gained from research, directed toward the production of useful materials, devices, systems, or methods, including design and development of prototypes and processes. It excludes quality control, routine product testing, and production."

It should be noted that the distinction between research and development, and between basic and applied research and can be very unclear and subject to different interpretations. The distinction between basic and applied research often says as much about how an agency perceives its mission or wishes to be perceived by others as it does about the nature of the research itself. For that reason, when referring to the nature of the research supported by agencies, the words ‘basic' and ‘applied' are always written within quotation marks.

This report defines environmental sciences as systematic study directed toward fuller scientific knowledge or understanding of the various biological and physical components of the earth's environment and the interactions between the earth's environment and mankind. The following areas within the definition of environmental R&D:

Physical environmental sciences such as atmospheric sciences, geological sciences, oceanography, and other non-biological terrestrial sciences.

Environmental life sciences such as environmental biology, forestry, marine biology, and related fields.

Environmental engineering and other sciences related to the impacts of natural and anthropogenic activities on the environment, including prevention, control, regulation, and clean-up.

Environmental social sciences such as environmental economics and other fields that study human social and cultural activities which affect, and are affected by, environmental conditions.

Environmental data and information sciences related to the environment, such as collection, storage, standardization, and management R&D.

Studies that utilize any or all of the above to address pollution problems or activities which impair the sustained functioning and productivity of the earth's environment.

Not included are:

Most human health R&D such as the much of the work carried out by the National Institute for Environmental Health Sciences and some other federal agencies. However, human health R&D focused on specific environmental problems such as the superfund program are included.

Extraterrestrial environmental sciences such as studies of the atmospheres and geologies of other planets.

Energy conservation and alternative energy research when not focused on a specific environmental problem such as climate change or air pollution.

Studies that focus primarily on resource extraction and utilizing environmental resources as distinct from how those practices impact the environment (which are included). Thus mining and fishing technology, studies of agricultural crops, livestock and their use are not generally included except where the focus is on environmental impact (e.g., studies of turtle excluder devices and of agricultural practices on the environment are included.)

This definition owes much to the definition used in the 1993 report Research to Protect, Restore and Manage the Environment by the National Academy of Sciences.

There is much to this definition that might be considered arbitrary. A strong case could be made for either a much broader or much narrower definition. It could be reasonably be argued that all studies on energy, transportation and extraterrestrial environments ought to be included. We believe that the current definition is reasonable and workable for this study, and will revisit the definition in future editions of this report.